Knowledge You Can Trust, Insights You Can Use

Revised edition v2.2 also updated with Appendices C, D, E and F from USCO Reg. TXu 2-511-413

Kenneth A. Essenwanger

and Microsoft® Copilot™ AI service assisted Appendix F

June 30, 2026

iFine Structure Physics, LLC

The physical reality of the universe is reverse engineered with proof-of-design (POD) herein. For over a century, theoretical physicists have been searching for the link between classical mechanics (CM) and quantum mechanics (QM), including the quantization and ROOT CAUSE OF GRAVITY, [A. Pais (Oxford University Press Inc., New York, NY, 2008), dark energy (DE), dark matter (DM), and an understanding of the big bang (BB) from time zero and before. For example, the Hamilton and Lisle [arXiv: gr-qc/0411060v2 (2006)] river-model theory of Black Holes (BHs) describes the flow of energy into a BH carrying matter with it like fish in a stream. In cosmology, Huterer [Cambridge University Press & Assessment, New York, NY (2023)] describes the need to understand the mechanism of the ratio of baryons-to-photons and why that ratio is so small. Similarly, ever since Dirac’s [Letters to the Editor, Nature (1937)] Large Number Hypothesis (LNH), a universal understanding of the fine structure constant (FSC) has been desired. The objective is the reverse engineering of the universe with POD by verification (with empirical data) & validation (IV&V) novel theories with known data in astrophysics by individual study in theoretical physics. This resulted in the novel Certainty Principle and Non-Equivalence Principle, which are in juxtaposition with and complementary to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle in QM and Einstein’s Equivalence Principle in CM, respectively.

A novel solution of Dirac’s LNH is—integration (into FST by derivation), IV&V with published (often unsolved) problems in physics—with the discovery that the FSC, approximately 1/137.0, is propagated in the derivation of equations for the universe at the nominal half radius, starting with an analogy from the clouds of hydrogen collapse to stars like our yellow star—the sun, for example. By analogy, novel equations for a cyclic universe also with the FSC are IV&V. For example, η = 6.120000036×10^-10 Baryons (B) to Photons (γ) is more precisely targeted in the derivation by a slight length correction in the meter for a novel FSP Universal system of units (USU) with respect to the empirical ratio of baryons-to-photons, detailed as η = ((6.12 ± 0.04) ×10^-10) [unitless]. Yale’s √2 corrected-Planck-constants are also adopted early on, and used throughout, and therefore IV&V.

Furthermore, the universe’s measured matter vs. dark energy empirical percentages of 30.27 ±0.38% and 69.73 ±0.38%, respectively, [DESI Collaboration, DESI DR2 II, arXiv:2503.14738v3v3 (2025)] are more precisely calculated to be 30.535% and 69.465%, respectively, for the late universe. For the early universe, the calculated baryonic mass and photonic energy’s equivalent-mass are 39.0% and 61.0%, respectively.

Hypothetical Einstein-Rosen Bridges (ERBs) [Physical Review, Volume 48 (1935)] between graviton-like-particles (GLPs) and DM-particles are indirectly IV&V. Gravity is naturally quantized with DE, exhibiting wave-particle duality by GLPs. The ROOT CAUSE OF GRAVITY: DE originates from vacuum space and flows into gluons in baryonic matter, DM particles, and gluon plasma (GP). DM particles are hypothetically dark baryons (DB) with mass of ~877% the mass of the one atomic mass unit [amu]. The equivalent mass DE or the GLP is ~2.0908 ×10^-36 kg.

Fine Structure Theory of Everything (FSTOE) builds on the river-model theory. Electromagnetic (EM) and Higgs field theories are enhanced with emergent properties of vacuum permeability, permittivity, FSC, and novel Planck viscosity. The novel Planck viscosity η_PL is a fundamental constant of nature instead of Newtonian gravitational constant Gn.

At the Big-Bounce (within one-sigma of time zero), the grand unified energy of the cyclic universe, with zero entropy and NO temperature, is estimated to be one billion solar diameters as opposed to a BB point singularity. The arrow of time is always forward for the cyclic universe, collapses and contracts at the critical reversal time of 9.803 trillion years.

In addition, the cosmological constant problem [S. M. Carroll, Cambridge University Press & Assessment, NY (2019)] is solved. FSTOE makes the connection to an 11-dimensional space-time string-supergravity M-theory [P. Nath, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY (2017)] and holography theory (2D surface projections into 3D bulk space) [G. ’t Hooft, arXiv:1405.1548v3 (2015)] to known cosmological phenomena and data that physicists have long sought after.

From astrophysics calculations, the empirically known percentages of atoms of the elements in the sun today yields the average number of electrons per atom 1.09507 which agrees with 1.09507 FSP—all 6 digits match—POD—IV&V with published unsolved problems in physics—for FST, FSTOE, FSP and USU.

Furthermore, appendix E provides the solution to the HUBBLE TENSION problem with yet another POD by IV&V. Both Hubble Parameters 73.3 local [Huterer] and 68.17 [DESI Collaboration, DESI DR2 II,

arXiv:2503.14738v3v3 (2025)] measurements in experimental astrophysics are consistent with FSP given the DESI plot of linear extrapolation to unity scale factor today. The Hubble Parameter is a function of time: It is not constant. The novel equation Ω_DE=(Ω_DM(t_n)/Ω_B(t_n)) [ln(t_n+1/t_n)=0.69465 is derived from the FSP framework and population growth models (PGM) and the age of the universe is theoretically ~13.8 billion years old for POD by IV&V with DESI DR2 results II empirical data and plot resulting in a high FSP maturity level of 8 (similar to technology readiness level).

A FSP prediction is that future research by DESI Collaboration and others will eventually include the entire exponential component and break at about 10.2 Gyrs—from the DESI linear extrapolation—as in conventional cosmology and FSP.

Also, ΛCDM is not drifting by “a weakening dark energy” as suggested in DESI DR2 results II: To the contrary, DE is theoretically constant from about 1.29E-32 seconds and DM is continuously created from DE flowing into the gluons of matter (visible and dark) from about 0.37E-32 seconds to today.

Once FSP is independently demonstrated repeatable and predictions are experimentally verified, the FSP POD is predicted to become widely accepted scientific proof in theoretical physics for FSP maturity level of 9.

arXiv:2503.14738v3v3 (2025)] measurements in experimental astrophysics are consistent with FSP given the DESI plot of linear extrapolation to unity scale factor today. The Hubble Parameter is a function of time: It is not constant. The novel equation ΩDE=(ΩDM(tn)/ΩB(tn)) ln(tn+1/tn)=0.69465 is derived from the FSP framework and population growth models (PGM) and the age of the universe is theoretically ~13.8 billion years old for POD by IV&V with DESI DR2 results II empirical data and plot resulting in a high FSP maturity level of 8 (similar to technology readiness level). A FSP prediction is that future research by DESI Collaboration and others will eventually include the entire exponential component and break at about 10.2 Gyrs—from the DESI linear extrapolation—as in conventional cosmology and FSP.

Also, ΛCDM is not drifting by “a weakening dark energy” as suggested in DESI DR2 results II: To the contrary, DE is theoretically constant form about 1.29E-32 seconds and DM is continuously created from DE flowing into the gluons of matter (visible and dark) from about 0.37E-32 seconds to today. Once FSP is independently demonstrated repeatable and predictions are experimentally verified, the FSP POD is predicted to become widely accepted scientific proof in theoretical physics for FSP maturity level of 9.